Casuistry of primates in a veterinary center in Paraguay: retrospective report 2004-2025

Abstract

Non-human primates play a fundamental role in tropical ecosystems, contributing to key ecological processes such as seed dispersal and the maintenance of community structure, while also holding significant evolutionary, cultural, and social value. Despite their importance, primates face a severe global conservation crisis driven primarily by human activities, including habitat loss, illegal trafficking, hunting, and disease transmission. In Paraguay, five native primate species are recognized, several of which are affected by illegal trade and inadequate captive management. This study reports the species composition and main clinical findings of non-human primates transferred to the Departamento de Recursos Faunísticos y Medio Natural of the Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Nacional de Asunción, between 2004 and 2025. Data were obtained from individual medical records, considering only primary diagnoses, and included information on taxonomy, origin, diet, and clinical condition. A total of 292 primates were registered, with Sapajus cay being the most frequent species (50%), followed by Alouatta caraya and Aotus azarae. Across all species, the most common reasons for consultation were routine check-ups, trauma, digestive disorders, infectious diseases, and respiratory conditions. Trauma and tetanus were recurrent findings, highlighting the impact of poor management and exposure to anthropogenic risks. In more than 88% of cases, diets were classified as incomplete or inappropriate, typically characterized by excessive sweet fruits, processed foods, and a lack of fiber, contrasting sharply with species-specific nutritional requirements. Information on animal origin was frequently missing, although available data indicated widespread national and transboundary illegal trafficking. The results emphasize the consequences of illegal possession and inadequate captive conditions on primate health and welfare, as well as the associated risks to conservation and public health due to zoonotic and anthropozoonotic diseases. Strengthening wildlife law enforcement, improving public awareness, and developing standardized protocols for rescue and rehabilitation are urgently needed in Paraguay.